Disinfection of Wastewater

Disinfection

Primary, secondary and even tertiary treatment cannot by expected to remove 100 percent of the incoming waste load and as a result, many organisms still remain in the waste stream.  To prevent the spread of waterborne diseases and also to minimize public health problems, regulatory agencies may require the destruction of pathogenic organisms in wastewaters.  While most of these microorganisms are not pathogens, pathogens must be assumed to be potentially present.  Thus, whenever wastewater effluents are discharged to receiving waters which may be used for water supply, swimming or shellfishing, the reduction of bacterial numbers to minimize health hazards is a very desirable goal. 

Disinfection is treatment of the effluent for the destruction of all pathogens.  Another term that is sometimes also used in describing the destruction of microorganisms issterilization.  Sterilization is the destruction of all microorganisms.  While disinfection indicates the destruction of all disease causing microorganisms, no attempt is made in wastewater treatment to obtain sterilization.  However, disinfection procedures applied to wastewaters will result in a substantial reduction of all microbes so that bacterial numbers are reduced to a safe level. 

In general, disinfection can be achieved by any method that destroys pathogens.  A variety of physical or chemical methods are capable of destroying microorganisms under certain conditions.  Physical methods might include, for example, heating to boiling or incineration or irradiation with X-rays or ultraviolet rays.  Chemical methods might theoretically include the use of strong acids, alcohols, or a variety of oxidizing chemicals or surface active agents (such as special detergents).  However, the treatment of wastewaters for the destruction of pathogens demands the use of practical measures that can be used economically and efficiently at all times on large quantities of wastewaters which have been treated to various degrees. 

In the past, wastewater treatment practices have principally relied on the use of chlorine for disinfection.  The prevalent use of chlorine has come about because chlorine is an excellent disinfecting chemical and, until recently, has been available at a reasonable cost.  However, the rising cost of chlorine coupled with the fact that chlorine even at low concentrations is toxic to fish and other biota as well as the possibility that potentially harmful chlorinated hydrocarbons may be formed has made chlorination less favored as the disinfectant of choice in wastewater treatment.  As a result, the increased use of ozone (ozonation) or ultraviolet light as a disinfectant in the future is a distinct possibility in wastewater disinfection.  Both ozone and ultraviolet light, as well as being an effective disinfecting agent, leave no toxic residual.  Ozone will additionally raise the dissolved oxygen level of the water.  However, ozone must be generated and has only recently begun to compete favorably with chlorination in terms of economics.  Ultraviolet light has recently undergone studies to determine its effectiveness and cost when used at large wastewater treatment plants.  While the study is not yet complete, ultraviolet light now appears effective and economically competitive with chlorination as a disinfectant. 

The use of both chlorine and ozone as chemical disinfectants and their disinfecting properties and actions will be considered individually.  However, since chlorine continues to be used extensively as a disinfectant, we will mainly be concerned with the principles and practice of chlorination. 

Secondary Treatment

In an average strength wastewater the total solids may be classified as being organic or inorganic in origin.  In terms of the size of the solids, the distribution is approximately thirty percent suspended, six percent colloidal and about sixty-five percent dissolved solids.  The function of primary treatment is to remove as much of the suspended solids as possible.  Primary treatment utilizes clarifiers or settling tanks which remove the settleable organics and settleable inorganic solids from the wastewater.  The effluent from primary treatment therefore contains mainly colloidal and dissolved organic and inorganic solids.  Recent effluent standards and water quality standards required a greater degree of removal of organics from wastewater than can be accomplished by primary treatment.  This additional removal of organics can be accomplished by secondary treatment.  The secondary treatment process consists of the biological treatment of wastewater by utilizing many different types of microorganisms in a controlled environment. 


In the biological treatment of wastewaters, a mixed population of microorganisms utilizes the colloidal and dissolved organics found in the effluent from the primary treatment as their man food supply.  In consuming these organics, the microorganisms utilize part of the organic substances to obtain the energy needed for their life activities.  When the oxidation of organics occurs in the presence of dissolved oxygen the end products include carbon dioxide, water, sulfates, nitrates, and phosphates.  The remainder part of the consumed organics are used as building blocks in a series of synthesis (reproduction) reactions that result in an increase population of microorganisms.  Therefore, the colloidal and dissolved organics originally present in the wastewater have been transformed in part into a stable form, such as carbon dioxide, and part into a viable biological mass.  This biochemical reaction is active in all biological treatment processes.  The biological mass must subsequently be separated from the wastewater to ensure a proper degree of treatment within effluent and water quality standards.  If this biological mass is not properly removed from the waste stream, usually by final clarification, effluent quality will be degraded and a higher BOD and S.S. load will be placed on the receiving waters. 
In the activated sludge process the microorganisms are dispersed throughout the water phase.  While in trickling filters or biodiscs the microorganisms are attached to a fixed surface forming a biological film.  In either, the microorganisms are doing the treatment and therefore all precautions must be taken to assure a favorable environment for their life cycle. 

Primary Treatment

Primary treatment is designed to remove organic and inorganic solids by the physical processes of sedimentation and flotation.  Primary treatment devices reduce the velocity and disperse the flow of wastewater.  In primary treatment the velocity of flow is reduced to 1 to 2 feet per minute to maintain a quiescent condition so that the material denser than water will settle out and material less dense than water will float to the surface.  Approximately 40 to 60 percent of the suspended solids are removed from the waste stream (25 - 35% BOD reduction).  The solids that remain in suspension as well as dissolved solids will usually be biochemically treated in subsequent processes for physical separation and removal in the final (secondary) settling tanks. 
The size and number of primary tanks is dependent on the estimated wastewater flow and the design detention time.  Generally, a detention time of 2 to 3 hours will provide a sufficient time period for most particles to settle out.  Further, the settling rate of a particle depends on the strength and freshness of the wastewater being treated, the weight of the solid compared to the specific gravity of water, the size and shape of the solid and the temperature of the water.  Water is more dense at lower temperatures;  therefore, the required settling time increases.  As the temperatures of the water increases, the required settling time decreases.  Equal distribution of flow throughout the tank is critical.  The greater the velocity in one area, the less the actual detention time.  Solids not having sufficient time to settle out will be discharged in the effluent. 
Principle primary treatment devices are referred to as sedimentation tanks, primary tanks, primary clarifiers or primary settling tanks, some of which have the further function of providing an additional compartment for the decomposition of settled organic solids which is known as sludge digestion.  There are several types of primary tanks in use. 
 
 
Septic Tanks
The septic tank was one of the earliest treatment devices developed.  Currently, septic tanks provide wastewater treatment for small populations, such as individual residences, small institutions, schools, etc. 
They are designed to hold wastewater at low velocity, under anaerobic conditions for minimum detention time of 36 hours.  During this period, a high removal of settleable solids is achieved.  These solids decompose in the bottom of the tank with the formation of gas which, entrained in the solids, causes them to rise through the wastewater to the surface and lie as a scum layer until the gas has escaped, after which the solids settle again.  This continual flotation and resettling of solids carries some of them in a current toward the outlet to be discharged with the effluent.  The final effluent disposal occurs by subsurface methods.  The effectiveness of this method is dependent on the leaching ability of the soil. 
These primary type units require a minimum of attention which involves an annual inspection and the periodic (3 - 5 years) removal of sludge and scum accumulations. 

Preliminary Treatment

The purpose of preliminary treatment is to protect the operation of the wastewater treatment plant.  This is achieved by removing from the wastewater any constituents which can clog or damage pumps, or interfere with subsequent treatment processes.  Preliminary treatment devices are, therefore, designed to: 

1. Remove or to reduce in size the large, entrained, suspended or floating solids.  These solids consist of pieces of wood, cloth, paper, plastics, garbage, etc. together with some fecal matter.
2. Remove heavy inorganic solids such as sand and gravel as well as metal or glass. These objects are called grit.
3. Remove excessive amounts of oils or greases.

A number of devices or types of equipment are used to obtain these objectives. 
 

 Racks and Bar Screens
These consist of bars usually spaced three-quarter inches to six inches.  Those most commonly used provide clear openings of one to two inches.  Although large screens are sometimes set vertically, screens are usually set at an angle of 45 to 60 degrees with the vertical.  The incoming wastewater is passed through the bars or screens and periodically the accumulated material is removed.  The racks or screens may be cleaned either manually or by means of automatically operated rakes.  The solids removed by these units can be disposed of by burial or incineration. 
 
 
Comminuting Devices
Grinders, cutters and shredders.  These are devices to break or cut up solids to such size that they can be returned to the wastewater without danger of clogging pumps or piping or affecting subsequent treatment devices.  They may be separate devices to grind solids removed by screens or a combination of screen and cutters installed within the wastewater flow channel in such a manner that the objective is accomplished without actually removing these larger solids from the wastewater.  These latter devices are made by a number of manufacturers under various trade names and, in most cases, consist of fixed, rotating or oscillating teeth or blades, acting together to reduce the solids to a size which will pass through fixed or rotating screens or grids having openings of about one-fourth inch.  Some of these devices are even designed to operate as a low-lift pump.  Unfortunately, many plants with comminuting devices develop problems within subsequent treatment units due to a build up of the shredded solids.  This is usually witnessed in the aeration system of activated sludge plants.  These shredded solids tend to clog diffusers and cling to the impeller blades of mechanical aerators. 
 
 
Grit Chambers
Wastewater usually contains a relatively large amount of inorganic solids such as sand, cinders and gravel which are collectively called grit.  The amount present in a particular wastewater depends primarily on whether the collecting sewer system is of the sanitary or combined type.  Grit will damage pumps by abrasion and cause serious operation difficulties in sedimentation tanks and sludge digesters by accumulation around and plugging of outlets and pump suctions.  Consequently, it is common practice to remove this material by grit chambers.  Grit chambers are usually located ahead of pumps or comminuting devices, and if mechanically cleaned, should be preceded by coarse bar rack screens.  Grit chambers are generally designed as long channels.  In these channels the velocity is reduced sufficiently to deposit heavy inorganic solids but to retain organic material in suspension.  Channel type chambers should be designed to provide controlled velocities as close as possible to 1.0 foot per second.  Velocities substantially greater than 1.0 foot per second cause excessive organic materials to settle out with the grit.  The detention period is usually between 20 seconds to 1.0 minute.  This is attained by providing several chambers to accommodate variation in flow or by proportional weirs at the end of the chamber or other flow control devices which permit regulation of flow velocity.  There are also patented devices to remove grit.  One development is the injection of air several feet above the floor of a tank type unit.  The rolling action of the air keeps the lighter organic matter in suspension and allows the grit relatively free from organic matter to be deposited in the quiescent zone beneath the zone of air diffusion.  Excessive quantities of air can cause the roll velocity to be too high resulting in poor grit removal.  Insufficient quantities of air result in low roll velocities and excessive organic matter will settle with the grit.  These grit chambers are usually called aerated grit chambers. 
 

Cleaning. 
Grit chambers are designed to be cleaned manually or by mechanically operated devices.  If cleaned manually, storage space for the deposited grit is usually provided.  Grit chambers for plants treating wastes from combined sewers should have at least two hand-cleaned units or a mechanically cleaned unit with by-pass.  Mechanically cleaned grit chambers are recommended.  Single, hand-cleaned chambers with by-pass, are acceptable for small wastewater treatment plants serving sanitary sewer systems.  Chambers other than channel type are acceptable, if provided with adequate and flexible controls for agitation and/or air supply devices and with grit removal equipment. 
There are a number of mechanical cleaning units available which remove grit be scrapers or buckets while the grit chamber is in normal operation.  These require much less grit storage space than manually operated units. 

Washing Grit. 
Grit always contains some organic matter which decomposes and creates odors.  To facilitate economical disposal of grit without causing nuisance, the organic matter is sometimes washed from the grit and returned to the wastewater.  Special equipment is available to wash grit.  Mechanical cleaning equipment generally provides for washing grit with wastewater as it is removed from the chamber. 

Quantity of Grit. 
This depends on the type of sewer system, the condition of the sewer lines and other factors.  Strictly domestic wastewater collected in well constructed sewers will contain little grit, while combined wastewater will carry large volumes of grit, reaching a peak at times of severe storms.  In general, 1.0 to 4.0 cu.ft. of grit per million gallons of wastewater flow can be expected. 

Operation. 
Manually cleaned grit chambers for combined wastewater should be cleaned after every large storm.  Under ordinary conditions these grit chambers should be cleaned when the deposited grit has filled 50 to 60 percent of the grit storage space.  This should be checked at least every ten days during dry weather. 
When mechanically cleaned grit chambers are used, they must be cleaned at regular intervals to prevent undue load on the cleaning mechanism.  Recommendations of the manufacturer should be rigidly observed.   This plus experience, will determine the cleaning schedule. 
A grit in which marked odors develop indicates that excessive organic matter is being removed in the grit chamber.  Alternately, if sludge from a settling tank is excessively high in grit, or if there is excessive wear in pumps, comminutors, sludge collectors or other mechanical equipment,  the reason is likely to be inefficient functioning of the grit removing process.  In either case, a study of this unit should be made. 

Disposal of Screenings and Grit. 
Screenings decompose rapidly with foul odors.  They should be kept covered in cans at the screens and removed at least daily for disposal by burial or incineration.  The walls and platforms of the screen chamber and screen itself should be hosed down and kept clean.  Grit containing much organic matter may have to be buried to prevent odor nuisances. 
 
 

Pre-Aeration Tanks
Pre-aeration of wastewater, that is aeration before primary treatment is sometimes provided for the following purposes: 

1. To obtain a greater removal of suspended solids in sedimentation tanks.
2. To assist in the removal of grease and oil carried in the wastewater.
3. To freshen up septic wastewater prior to further treatment.
4. BOD reduction.

Pre-aeration is accomplished by introducing air into the wastewater for a period of 20 to 30 minutes at the design flow.  This may be accomplished by forcing compressed air into the wastewater at a rate of about 0.10 cu.ft. per gallon of wastewater when 30 minutes of aeration is provided or by mechanical agitation whereby the wastewater is stirred or agitated so that new surfaces are continually brought into contact with the atmosphere for absorption of air.  To insure proper agitation when compressed air is forced into the wastewater, air is usually supplied at the rate of 1.0 to 4.0 cubic feet per minute per linear foot of tank or channel.  When air for mechanical agitation (either with or without the use of chemicals) is used for the additional purpose of obtaining increased reduction in BOD, the detention period should be at least 45 minutes at design flow.  The agitation of wastewater in the presence of air tends to collect or flocculate lighter suspended solids into heavier masses which settle more readily in the sedimentation tanks.  Pre-aeration also helps to separate grease and oil from the wastewater and wastewater solids and to carry them to the surface.  By the addition of air, aerobic conditions are also restored in septic wastewater to improve subsequent treatment. 
The devices and equipment for introducing the air into the wastewater are the same or similar to those used in the activated sludge process. 
 
 
Pre-Chlorination
Pre-chlorination is the chlorination of a wastewater prior to primary treatment.  In general, the objectives of pre-chlorination are not related to disinfection, and its use is related to either temporarily preventing further wastewater decomposition or reducing problems associated with wastewater decomposition.  The objectives of pre-chlorination are: 

1. Odor control
2. Protection of plant structures
3. Aid in sedimentation, and
4. Reduction or delay of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

 
Odor Control.
  The decomposition of wastewater starts in sewers and becomes objectionable only after anaerobic decomposition has taken over.  The degree of putrefaction that occurs is related to the time the wastewater is in the sewers which, in turn, depends on the length and grades of the sewers.  Odor problems, therefore, develop where the sewers are long or where it is necessary to collect sewage in pump sumps and subsequently pump the wastewater to a treatment plant.  There are few places in this state where the sewers are so long that putrefaction occurs to such a degree that offensive odors rise from the sewers before the wastewater reaches the wastewater treatment plant.  If such a condition occurs, it may be possible to chlorinate the wastewater at a manhole on a trunk sewer.  The amount of chlorine required varies depending on how long the decomposition of the wastewater must be delayed.  It is not necessary to add sufficient chlorine to satisfy the chlorine demand, but merely sufficient to destroy odors and slow bacterial decomposition.  Thus, no residual chlorine is produced.  Doses of four to six mg/L are generally sufficient to control odors.  Chlorine may be applied upsewer from the plant in forcemains, pump suction wells, screen chambers, grit chambers, trickling filter influent, settling tanks or wherever there is an odor problem.  Normally, the practice is to start with a fairly high dose of chlorine (10 mg/L) to quickly control the odors, and gradually reduce the dose over a period of time to determine the minimum that will satisfy the local condition.
 
The production of offensive odors at pumping stations is a fairly common occurrence.  Chlorination of the wastewater as it enters the pump sump or in the pump sump is effective as a preventative measure.  The amount of chlorine required varies with the different situations but is less than that required to produce a residual.  Generally, it is about the same as the chlorine demand or 25 to 50 lbs. per million gallons, but the minimum effective dose must be found by trial and error for each installation. 
Another common occurrence is for wastewater to be septic, or a source of odor, as it is received at the wastewater plant.  To prevent disagreeable odors during treatment, chlorination of the influent of the primary sedimentation tank is practiced which also aids in the settling properties of the sludge solids.  If the purpose is only odor control and not disinfection, the chlorination need not be sufficient to produce a residual.  Generally, a dose that will destroy all the reducing substances and thus slow the rate of decomposition is used.  How great this dose must be depends to a large extent on how far putrefaction proceeded before the wastewater reached the plant.  When putrefaction is far advanced, the chlorine dose may be equal to or greater than the dose which would produce a residual if the wastewater were fresh. 
A similar situation may develop when the wastewater is received fresh but becomes septic during the treatment process.  This often occurs in a new plant where the initial wastewater flow is far less than the design flow and the detention period in the primary tanks is greatly prolonged.  Again pre-chlorination of the tank influent is used to delay putrefaction and resulting odors.  In this case, the chlorine dose will be much less than that required if the wastewater were septic.  The amount of reducing substances in the wastewater will be low and a dose of two to five mg/L of chlorine may be sufficient to prevent odors. 
 
 
Protection of Plant Structures.
Decomposition of wastewater can proceed to the point of hydrogen sulfide production, but, owing to location or low concentration, odors are not a problem.  If this occurs in a pumping station, intercepting sewers or treatment plant, there may be serious corrosion.  The remedy is similar to that for odor control -- chlorination sufficient to prevent hydrogen sulfide formation or to destroy hydrogen sulfide if it has been produced.  The points of application are similar to those used for odor control but the quantity of chlorine may be less because only hydrogen sulfide has to be controlled.  Minimum chlorine dose cannot be found without laboratory tests.  In general though, this is a specific problem and the dose of chlorine can be found by trial and error.  It may not be necessary to destroy all the hydrogen sulfide but only to reduce the concentration to one or two mg/L so that the amount evolved will be a minimum.  Hydrogen sulfide causes structures to be damaged and weakened due to corrosion and can result in shutdown of the plant for repair.  Generally, it is an economic problem, but factors other than cost must be considered.  One such factor is the toxic nature of hydrogen sulfide.

Aid in Sedimentation. 
Pre-chlorination at the influent of a settling tank is sometimes practical for the benefit of improved settling.  Generally, such benefits are incidental to the use of pre-chlorination for some other purpose.  However, when there is a choice of the point of chlorine application, it is well to bear in mind that improved sedimentation, heavier sludge, and improved grease and oil separation are obtainable when chlorination of the primary influent is practiced.

Reduction or Delay of Biochemical Oxygen Demand. 
Chlorination of raw wastewater to produce a residual of 0.2 to 0.5 mg/L after 15 minutes contact may cause a reduction of 15 to 35 percent in the BOD of the wastewater.  Generally, a reduction of at least 2 mg/L of 5 day BOD is obtained for each mg/L of chlorine applied up to the point at which a residual is produced.  When units of a plant become overloaded, use can be made of chlorination to reduce the load until additional treatment facilities can be provided as the use of chlorine for BOD reduction is usually not economical.  Chlorine is also used when the additional load is only temporary, such as when supernatant is returned from sludge digesters or when a plant receives intermittent discharges of industrial wastes.
 
Occasionally, chlorination of the plant effluent to a relatively high residual is practiced to delay or reduce the BOD load on receiving waters during short periods of extremely low stream flow.  This is only an emergency procedure but does offer some aid under such conditions.  Generally, the higher the residual carried the more the load is reduced, but care must be taken to prevent fish kills by chlorine. 

Wastewater Treatment

Water is available to anyone for no cost. It can be found in so many places. The earth is comprised of mostly water. Human depend on water for every day things and it is up there with needing food. Some of the daily chores that we must complete can not be done without water to help. When water is used, can it be recycled to be available again?


Even wastewater is recyclable when it completes a process known as wastewater treatment. There is not only one method for wastewater treatment. Many of the methods are still as good today as they were years ago. This method of wastewater treatment gets rid of the odor by getting rid of the algae or bacteria in the water. The taste is also made better by chemicals being added to it in other treatment processes. The particles are gotten out with a filtration process. Methods for treating wastewater differ in many ways to ensure that the water is clean and safe for you to reuse again and again.


Wastewater Filtration
The method for treating wastewater that is know as filtration, takes out the particles in the wastewater by grabbing the particles and letting the remaining water flow through a membrane. The filter sifts the water and the particles causing them to separate from each other. More than one filter type is available for the filtration method. Simple filters that resemble fine nets are also utilized for the smaller particles in the water. For micro sized particles, an advanced system for filtering is needed.


Each filter has its own life expectancy. After the filter has been used for an extended period of time and the particles are gathered into the filter, the water will start to flow through it slowly. To eliminate the gathered particles from the filter, it will need to be washed by a method called backwashing. Taking the filter and flipping it inside out and running water through it will separate the particles from the filter. If this method does not help the flow of water through the filter, replacement of the filter is necessary.


Wastewater Aeration
Industries use the aeration method of treating wastewater more than the residential sectors do. Aeration simple means that air is brought to the water. The water becomes oxygenated by the air. This process is completed to get rid of the foul odor creating chemicals. These chemicals could be ammonia or hydrogen sulfide. There are many different ways to aerate the water.


Diffused aeration is completed by making bubbles in the water while aeration by a spray is completed by spraying the water in the air. Repeated aeration is done by letting the water go through the many conduits before it is allowed to mix in the air. The cascading aeration is completed to make little waterfalls that allow the water to flow through many layers. The final type of aeration is stripping. This stripping mixes multiple aeration and cascade aeration together.


Wetlands Created On The Site Of The Wastewater
There are many cities and municipalities in the US and some countries overseas that utilize the wetland method when treating their wastewater. These onsite wetlands are largely used as a method for treating wastewater because it has been shown to be the best for the environment and help to keep the balance of the ecosystem.


This treatment of wastewater can either be natural wetlands or manmade wetlands. These wetlands provide a filter by allowing the water plants and rocks to separate the solid waste from the water. This wetland method also gets rid of the odors by using a biological method of removing the bacteria and the odor molecules are broken up.


Large industries provide their own ways to treat the wastewater before they allow it to flow into the water sources. Homes have their own particular ways also. The same outcome is wanted with all the methods and that is to make the water recycled and ready to use again.

Paper Recycling Facts

• To produce each week's Sunday newspapers, 500,000 trees must be cut down.
• Recycling a single run of the Sunday New York Times would save 75,000 trees.
• If all our newspaper was recycled, we could save about 250,000,000 trees each year!
• If every American recycled just one-tenth of their newspapers, we would save about 25,000,000 trees a year.
• If you had a 15-year-old tree and made it into paper grocery bags, you'd get about 700 of them. A busy supermarket could use all of them in under an hour! This means in one year, one supermarket can go through over 6 million paper bags! Imagine how many supermarkets there are just in the United States!!!
• The average American uses seven trees a year in paper, wood, and other products made from trees. This amounts to about 2,000,000,000 trees per year!
• The amount of wood and paper we throw away each year is enough to heat 50,000,000 homes for 20 years.
• Approximately 1 billion trees worth of paper are thrown away every year in the U.S.
• Americans use 85,000,000 tons of paper a year; about 680 pounds per person.
• The average household throws away 13,000 separate pieces of paper each year. Most is packaging and junk mail.
• In 1993, U.S. paper recovery saved more than 90,000,000 cubic yards of landfill space.
• Each ton (2000 pounds) of recycled paper can save 17 trees, 380 gallons of oil, three cubic yards of landfill space, 4000 kilowatts of energy, and 7000 gallons of water. This represents a 64% energy savings, a 58% water savings, and 60 pounds less of air pollution!
• The 17 trees saved (above) can absorb a total of 250 pounds of carbon dioxide from the air each year. Burning that same ton of paper would create 1500 pounds of carbon dioxide.
• The construction costs of a paper mill designed to use waste paper is 50 to 80% less than the cost of a mill using new pulp.

Aluminum Recycling Facts

• A used aluminum can is recycled and back on the grocery shelf as a new can, in as little as 60 days. That's closed loop recycling at its finest!
• Used aluminum beverage cans are the most recycled item in the U.S., but other types of aluminum, such as siding, gutters, car components, storm window frames, and lawn furniture can also be recycled.
• Recycling one aluminum can saves enough energy to run a TV for three hours -- or the equivalent of a half a gallon of gasoline.
• More aluminum goes into beverage cans than any other product.
• Because so many of them are recycled, aluminum cans account for less than 1% of the total U.S. waste stream, according to EPA estimates.
• An aluminum can that is thrown away will still be a can 500 years from now!
• There is no limit to the amount of times an aluminum can be recycled.
• We use over 80,000,000,000 aluminum soda cans every year.
• At one time, aluminum was more valuable than gold!
• A 60-watt light bulb can be run for over a day on the amount of energy saved by recycling 1 pound of steel. In one year in the United States, the recycling of steel saves enough energy to heat and light 18,000,000 homes!

7 Ways You Can Easily Save Paper and Avoid Killing the Environment

1. Buy Recycled Paper, Duh
   According to the City of Seattle a ton of paper made from recycled paper, as opposed to virgin paper, saves the equivalent of 4,100 kilowatt hours of energy, 7000 gallons of water, 60 pounds of air emissions, and 3 cubic yards of landfill space.
2. Check Your Work to Avoid Printing Copies that Have to Be Thrown Away
   Make sure to spell check your work, and even read over it on screen. Use the Print Preview feature to preview your work to make sure everything lines up correctly.
3. Use the Print Range feature to Print Only what You Need
   You can use the Print range feature available in most programs to print only the exact pages or the selected text that you need.
4. Don’t Throw Away Your Mis-prints, Keep it as Draft Paper
   You can keep paper that you may have printed earlier which you no longer need, and print on the blank side instead of throwing it way like I am sure we have all done before. You can even use it to jot down notes for yourself instead of wasting Post it notes.
5. Make Use of Double Sided Printing
   It’s actually pretty simple. First print the odd pages by editing the Print range after pressing Ctrl+P. Then flip the pages over and put them back in the paper tray. Then just print the even pages by editing thePrint range once again.
6. Avoid Printed Envelope Labels, And Print Directly on to the Envelope
   Save paper by avoiding printing addresses on to labels, only to turn around and stick that label on an envelope. It is very easy to addresses and more right onto the label using Microsoft Word or other word processing programs.
7. Send Documents via eMail or eFax
   Although you may not always be able to, try to send stuff via email whenever possible. If you are going to fax something, many times people never use the functionality of many printers which allows for eFax. With eFax you don’t have to print something out just to stick in the fax machine and then throw it away when your done.

6 Eco-friendly Gift Ideas for Valentine's Day

On Valentine's Day, people share wonderful moments together and make them more meaningful with a special Valentine present. This year, carry on the tradition with a bit of twist: give green Valentine gifts. Here are some ideas.


1. Tree-friendly Valentine Cards
Next to Christmas, Valentine's Day is the largest card-sending holiday of the year. In fact, 25 percent of all seasonal cards annually are Valentine cards. According to American Greetings Corporation, around a billion valentine cards are sent each year around the world.


Make a difference by choosing cards that are made from recycled or tree-free paper. Card makers usually indicate this at the back of every card. Homemade cards are also a good choice. Make cards out of recycled materials such as thick cardboards, used fabric, old buttons, etc. Creativity and resourcefulness are green virtues.


2. E-books

E-books do not consume paper and do not use up fuel upon delivery. Purchase an e-book that will be of good use to the recipient. For example, a mother who loves to cook might enjoy an e-book of recipes. A dog lover would love an e-book about dog breeds, while a female teenager might appreciate a romance novel.


3. Organic Chocolates

Over 36 million heart-shaped boxes of chocolate are sold each year. It's not bad to be part of the statistic but, for a change, try something different. Organically grown chocolates contain cacao products that were grown without the aid of harmful pesticides. Buying produce from local fair traders helps support sustainable farming and reduce carbon footprint.


Organic chocolates are also good for one's health. When eaten in moderation, they can help improve heart health, control blood sugar, and suppress chronic cough.


4. Locally Grown Organic Flowers

Valentine’s Day is the holiday when most fresh flower purchases are made. Try to add more meaning to the tradition by choosing locally grown organic flowers. Organic flowers are pesticide-free and just as beautiful as the ones grown using conventional gardening. Buying locally grown organic flowers also helps support local growers who advocate environmentally friendly flower farming. Organically grown flowers are usually sold at a fair trade or from flower shops.


Here are a few reasons why locally grown organic flowers are the best choice this Valentine season:


Organic flower farming provides healthier conditions for workers, supports sustainable organic farming practices, and avoids harmful toxic products (artificial pesticides that are often used in conventional flower farming)
Locally grown flowers provide jobs to people within the community, are fresher when bought at nearby flower shops, and use less fuel upon transport or delivery.
A 1997 report found that commercially grown roses contain 1,000 times the amount of cancer-causing pesticides when compared with food products. *
5. Potted Plant
How about giving a potted plant as gift? Potted plants have longer life than freshly cut flowers, which means that they will add to clean air for some time. Giving plants as gifts also encourages people to appreciate flora and give them as gifts too.


6. Jewelry
About 10 percent of engagements happen on Valentine’s day. Hence, the number of jewelry purchases during this occasion is relatively high. Consider purchasing pre-owned jewelry from jewel makers who are certified to be sourcing gemstones and precious metals in an ecologically and socially responsible manner. Buying pre-owned jewelry also helps reduce production rate and consequently, added waste. Another option would be to purchase something offbeat like jewelry made of beads, wood, or other materials.






Read more at Suite101: Green Valentine Gifts: 6 Eco-friendly Gift Ideas for Valentine's Day http://natural-products.suite101.com/article.cfm/green-valentine-gifts#ixzz0fNzFVf6I

Home Decoration Planning Bathrooms

Bathrooms and toilets have always been mused as the intellectuals to spend some time alone and do some thinking and be with peace with oneself. An ideal bath retreat at home may not have a spa, a luxurious Jacuzzi or a whirlpool but is still a place that soothes one’s eyes and mind at once and make the person feel comfortable. It is efficient and beautiful at the same time and should be able to make the day for you. Planning and designing a new bathroom or remodeling the one that is already existing needs a careful execution to minimize spending more than your budget and get what you desired originally.

Whether you will be making just a few cosmetic changes or completely tear down the old bath and replace it with a new one depends on the time, space available and your budget. There can be two ways of execution plans you can adopt:

1. Step-by-step plan, and
2. Finishing the complete project at once.

While undertaking the latter approach is of course efficient and cheaper, it may become inconvenient as you may require a spare bathroom to use in the meanwhile, do or manage many things at once including framing, plumbing, light and faucet fittings, tiling and painting and it can be real taxing on your pocket. So, it may be more suitable for only the new bathrooms while you can adopt the former approach for the remodeling projects.

While designing a bath for homes, it is important to take the following into consideration beforehand:

• Other bathrooms that you can use in your home or your friend’s
  temporarily,
• Make the budget carefully and include the costs of faucets,
  fixtures and light fittings; lumber, cabinets and finishing
  materials; pipes and fittings; curtains, flooring and accessories
  such as towels, spas and warmers and fireplaces.
• You may want to keep some of the existing features or items, may
  recycle some of the architectural and other items available very
  inexpensively at thrift stores and do a good research into the
  options available to you before buying expensive items.
• Architectural drafting with detailed drawings and some of the
  computer applications can help you to visualize the features and
  design and décor elements you desire in your finished
  bathroom.
• Be sure to know the requirements and established codes of the
  building, society and locality you live in and the permissions and
  authority letters that you may require before making the changes and
  stick to the rules and regulations to avoid inconveniences later.

Gujarat Univ converts banana plant waste into useful products

Ahmedabad: In what will be music to the ears of banana cultivators, a Gujarat-based agriculture university has successfully converted those parts of the fruit's plant which are usually thrown away as waste into highly useful products, including an edible candy with nutritional values.

Under a project 'A value chain on utilisation of banana pseudostem for fibre and other value added products', Navsari Agriculture University (NAU) professors have developededible candy high in fibre and nutrition made out of central core of plant pseudostem.

The other products include fibre for textile and paper industry and organic liquid fertiliser, which have been developed under the project which aims for efficient use of each and every component of banana plant.

"We have been working on the project for a year and developed a number of products using the banana plant, including edible candy," NAU professor BN Kolambe told PTI.

"This candy is made from the central core of the banana plant pseudostem, which is a nutrition-rich part. The candy has been developed on experimental basis and we are in the
process of standardising the product," he said.

If parts of the banana plant like leaves and pseudostem are used to develop value added products, farmers would be the ultimate beneficiaries as banana is grown in large quantity in Gujarat, Kolambe said. "A sample of the candy has been sent for certification to
the Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI), Mysore. It is still in the initial stage and once we get the certification we would try and find partners for commercial production," Kolambe said.

The professor said that they have been working for the last one year on the project, which aims at developing technology or processes for utilisation of different parts of banana plant which are thrown away. According to Kolambe, banana is cultivated throughout the year in over 55,000 hectares in the state.

And also looking at the demand for banana in the international market and with new technologies evolved for better yield, farmers have shown interest in its cultivation in state mainly in districts of south Gujarat, he said.

"The per hectare yield of banana crop is about 34 tonnes in the state. As a result, in addition to fruit production, huge quantity of biomass (pseduostem, leaves) is generated
which is discarded as waste," Kolambe said.

In the past, some researchers have successfullydemonstrated use of banana pseudostem and leaves for extraction of fibres on a small scale, he said.

"What we are developing is a technology for extracting fibre and pulp out of banana pseudostem for commercial purpose which could be used in textile and paper industry. Presently, banana fibre in India is mainly used for handicrafts and rope, as major problem of non-adoption of fibre extraction technology is low recovery of fibres leading to high transport cost, Kolambe said.

The professor said that during fibre extraction, waste and sap (a watery solution of sugars, salts and minerals obtained from banana pseudostem) are obtained as by-products, which are used for preparing enriched vermi-compost and as liquid fertiliser respectively.

"We have completed the first phase of developing technology or process. In the next stage we will standardise the process for industrial and commercial use," Kolambe said.

"In the final stage we plan to develop an effective marketing network of banana pseudostem based products and attempts will be made to popularise the developed technologies among the entrepreneurs and other stakeholders through awareness programmes," he said.

With the use of technology developed out of this project, the net profit of banana growers is expected to increase by 15-20% as pseudostem fibres will be an additional
source of raw material for textile and paper industries, Kolambe said.

"Not only this, use of pseudostem based vermi-compost and sap will curtail fertiliser expenses by about 20-25% along with advantage of sustaining soil health," he added.

5 Deadliest Effects of Global Warming

Green house gases stay can stay in the atmosphere for an amount of years ranging from decades to hundreds and thousands of years. No matter what we do, global warming is going to have some effect on Earth. Here are the 5 deadliest effects of global warming.

5. Spread of disease

As northern countries warm, disease carrying insects migrate north, bringing plague and disease with them. Indeed some scientists believe that in some countries thanks to global warming, malaria has not been fully eradicated.

4. Warmer waters and more hurricanes

As the temperature of oceans rises, so will the probability of more frequent and stronger hurricanes. We saw in this in 2004 and 2005.

3. Increased probability and intensity of droughts and heat waves
Although some areas of Earth will become wetter due to global warming, other areas will suffer serious droughts and heat waves. Africa will receive the worst of it, with more severe droughts also expected in Europe. Water is already a dangerously rare commodity in Africa, and according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, global warming will exacerbate the conditions and could lead to conflicts and war.

2. Economic consequences
Most of the effects of anthropogenic global warming won’t be good. And these effects spell one thing for the countries of the world: economic consequences. Hurricanes cause do billions of dollars in damage, diseases cost money to treat and control and conflicts exacerbate all of these.

1. Polar ice caps melting
The ice caps melting is a four-pronged danger.

First, it will raise sea levels. There are 5,773,000 cubic miles of water in ice caps, glaciers, and permanent snow. According to the National Snow and Ice Data Center, if all glaciers melted today the seas would rise about 230 feet. Luckily, that’s not going to happen all in one go! But sea levels will rise.

Second, melting ice caps will throw the global ecosystem out of balance. The ice caps are fresh water, and when they melt they will desalinate the ocean, or in plain English – make it less salty. The desalinization of the gulf current will “screw up” ocean currents, which regulate temperatures. The stream shutdown or irregularity would cool the area around north-east America and Western Europe. Luckily, that will slow some of the other effects of global warming in that area!

Third, temperature rises and changing landscapes in the artic circle will endanger several species of animals. Only the most adaptable will survive.

Fourth, global warming could snowball with the ice caps gone. Ice caps are white, and reflect sunlight, much of which is relected back into space, further cooling Earth. If the ice caps melt, the only reflector is the ocean. Darker colors absorb sunlight, further warming the Earth.

Global Warming Solutions

What Can We Do?

The evidence that humans are causing global warming is strong, but the question of what to do about it remains controversial. Economics, sociology, and politics are all important factors in planning for the future

Is this possible?

Many people and governments are already working hard to cut greenhouse gases, and everyone can help.

Researchers Stephen Pacala and Robert Socolow at Princeton University have suggested one approach that they call "stabilization wedges." This means reducing GHG emissions from a variety of sources with technologies available in the next few decades, rather than relying on an enormous change in a single area.  They suggest 7 wedges that could each reduce emissions, and all of them together could hold emissions at approximately current levels for the next 50 years, putting us on a potential path to stabilize around 500 ppm.

There are many possible wedges, including improvements to energy efficiency and vehicle fuel economy (so less energy has to be produced), and increases in wind and solar power, hydrogen produced from renewable sources, biofuels (produced from crops), natural gas, and nuclear power.  There is also the potential to capture the carbon dioxide emitted from fossil fuels and store it underground—a process called "carbon sequestration."

In addition to reducing the gases we emit to the atmosphere, we can also increase the amount of gases we take out of the atmosphere.  Plants and trees absorb CO2 as they grow, "sequestering" carbon naturally.  Increasing forestlands and making changes to the way we farm could increase the amount of carbon we're storing.

Some of these technologies have drawbacks, and different communities will make different decisions about how to power their lives, but the good news is that there are a variety of options to put us on a path toward a stable climate.

Global Warming

What Causes Global Warming?

Scientists have spent decades figuring out what is causing global warming. They've looked at the natural cycles and events that are known to influence climate. But the amount and pattern of warming that's been measured can't be explained by these factors alone. The only way to explain the pattern is to include the effect of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted by humans.

To bring all this information together, the United Nations formed a group of scientists called the International Panel on Climate Change, or IPCC. The IPCC meets every few years to review the latest scientific findings and write a report summarizing all that is known about global warming. Each report represents a consensus, or agreement, among hundreds of leading scientists.

One of the first things scientists learned is that there are several greenhouse gases responsible for warming, and humans emit them in a variety of ways. Most come from the combustion of fossil fuels in cars, factories and electricity production. The gas responsible for the most warming is carbon dioxide, also called CO2. Other contributors include methane released from landfills and agriculture (especially from the digestive systems of grazing animals), nitrous oxide from fertilizers, gases used for refrigeration and industrial processes, and the loss of forests that would otherwise store CO2.

Different greenhouse gases have very different heat-trapping abilities. Some of them can even trap more heat than CO2. A molecule of methane produces more than 20 times the warming of a molecule of CO2. Nitrous oxide is 300 times more powerful than CO2. Other gases, such as chlorofluorocarbons (which have been banned in much of the world because they also degrade the ozone layer), have heat-trapping potential thousands of times greater than CO2. But because their concentrations are much lower than CO2, none of these gases adds as much warmth to the atmosphere as CO2 does.

In order to understand the effects of all the gases together, scientists tend to talk about all greenhouse gases in terms of the equivalent amount of CO2. Since 1990, yearly emissions have gone up by about 6 billion metric tons of "carbon dioxide equivalent" worldwide, more than a 20% increase.